When the Public Square Was the Final Exam: Roman Education and the Civic Purpose of Assessment
The History of Assessment Series
By Emily Andrews
Estimated Reading Time: 7 minutes
Philosophy and oratory. Contemplation and effective action. The formation of the soul and training for civic life. The tug between these poles of education goes all the way back to the beginning.
While instruction in rhetoric has its origins among the Greeks, it was the Roman inheritors of the tradition who really emphasized the importance of oratory for the development of free citizens. For them, education was not complete until a student could prove himself capable of utilizing his learning on behalf of the state.
Consequently, assessments had to be built around evaluating a student’s readiness for shouldering the weight of civic duty – they were not just performed for the good of a student’s soul.
Oratory and Philosophy
Cicero, the famous Roman orator and statesman of the first century BC, believed that both philosophy and oratory were essential for forming good citizens. He lamented the division between the subjects that existed during his lifetime and blamed the state of affairs on Socrates and those like him who were so disgusted by sophists (those who use rhetoric to manipulate others for their own interests) that they did not involve themselves with political affairs or oratorical training.
In De Oratore, Cicero claims Socrates as “the source from which has sprung the undoubtedly absurd and unprofitable and reprehensible severance between the tongue and the brain.” As a result of the severance, he says, “the streams of learning flowing from the common watershed of wisdom, as rivers do from the Apennines, divided in two, the philosophers flowing down into the entirely Greek waters of the Eastern Mediterranean with its plentiful supply of harbors, while the orators glided into the rocky and inhospitable Western seas of our outlandish Tuscany, where even Ulysses himself lost his bearings.” (1)
Orators, rhetoricians, sophists––they were all lumped together and looked down upon by the “learned” class, who were eager to preserve education as a good for its own sake. Just like today, true lovers of wisdom were loath to sacrifice the liberal arts to utility. However, Cicero was adamant that the two “pathways” must become one. The orator requires moral reasoning to direct his skill, but the philosopher also needs oratory in order to enjoy his learning. He writes, “That favorite assertion of Socrates–that every man was eloquent enough upon a subject that he knew–has in it some plausibility but no truth: it is nearer the truth to say that neither can anyone be eloquent upon a subject that is unknown to him, nor, if he knows it perfectly and yet does not know how to shape and polish his style, can he speak fluently even upon that which he does know.” (2)
Cicero reminds us that we are both embodied and social creatures. Being able to give voice to our thoughts and share them with others is often the way we actually come to take ownership of knowledge. And the things we come to know are not meant to be for ourselves alone.
The Social Nature of Education
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (“Quintilian”), a Roman of the first century AD, teacher, and admirer of Cicero, handed down his extensive classroom experience in the twelve books of his famous Institutes. There he harps on Cicero’s theme, encouraging students to pursue abstract learning and practical skills in tandem.
Quintilian urges teachers to expand their pedagogy beyond books and ideas. He writes, “It is above all things necessary that our future orator, who will have to live in the utmost publicity and in the broad daylight of public life, should become accustomed from his childhood to move in society without fear and habituated to a life far removed from that of the pale student, the solitary and recluse.” Lest his readers imagine that real world experience is only required for future orators, he adds, “For he who has no standard of comparison by which to judge his own powers will necessarily rate them too high.” (3)
Public life necessarily shapes human beings, and it should therefore shape education as well. Being around other people allows students to assess their own abilities, so that they may both maintain a realistic view of themselves and also understand the knowledge and skills they are acquiring in the context of real (and therefore social) life. The significance of man’s political nature leads Quintilian to make recommendations for the practice of education. For example, he claims that students need to be nourished by a “living voice” and not just words on a page. He also believes students should be educated together so that a teacher has the proper environment for performing his own oratorical prowess. (In other words, you’re unlikely to make a very strong speech in front of just one person.)
For Quintilian, the effect of a good education should be to mold “a ‘wise man’ in the Roman sense, that is, one who reveals himself as a true statesman, not in the discussions of the study, but in the actual practice and experience of life.” (4) The public sphere is the testing ground of learning. If someone has received a full education, they will both desire and effectively perform service on behalf of their communities.
The Civic Nature of Assessment
In Education in Ancient Rome, Stanley F. Bonner writes that “as a young man, Cicero supplemented his studies of rhetorical theory with daily exercises in what subsequently was called declamation, that is, he rehearsed aloud, often in the company of friends.” (5) One must imagine that Cicero chose to practice oratory with others, as opposed to practicing alone, because he desired feedback from his peers. Outside assessment was the means by which he made himself serviceable to the state. Because he was shaping his skills for the purpose of public utility, he allowed members of the public to evaluate his progress.
The great Roman oratorical tradition is an excellent reminder that, while education is by no means utilitarian, it is meant to be utilized in service to our neighbors. To ensure that such service is service indeed and not burdensome to others, students must be evaluated to ensure that they are prepared to execute their civic duties with integrity and wisdom.
Assessment has a social function, and the classical tradition affirms it is a good thing for it to fulfill that function. We want to know our doctors are ready to treat the body. We want to know our lawyers are ready to uphold the law. And we want to know that our citizens are ready to make decisions that will uphold the good of the individual and the state.
For that reason, a classical test must maintain a high standard. Although grade inflation and low expectations may appear useful to an individual in the moment, in the end they will be disastrous to the whole. An assessment must tell the truth about a student’s progress in knowledge so that the weight of responsibility is only placed on the shoulders of those who are prepared to bear it.
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(1.) Cicero, De Oratore, in The Great Tradition, ed. Richard Gamble (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2008), pg. 74,76.
(2.) Ibid., 72.
(3.) Quintilian, Institutes, in he Great Tradition, ed. Richard Gamble (Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2008), pg. 115.
(4.) Ibid., 123.
(5.) Stanley F. Bonner, Education in Ancient Rome (Berkley: University of California Press, 1977), Kindle edition, Chapter 7.
Emily Andrews is the Marketing Content Manager for CLT. She lives with her husband and daughter in Spokane, WA and enjoys hoarding books, eating good meals, and failing to complete crossword puzzles.
If you enjoyed this piece, be sure to check out The Anchored Podcast. For more Journal content, check out this post on the classical understanding of testing. From all of us at the Journal, thanks for reading and have a great rest of your week.
Published on 19th August 2026.