Texts in Context:
Timeline of Classical Antiquity—Part II

By Gabriel Blanchard

This timeline covers approximately the second half of Classical Antiquity, i.e. the late first century BC to the late fifth century AD. It is not exhaustive; some dates below are approximate or conjectural, and a few especially uncertain ones have a question mark. Our previous summary timelines include one covering prehistory and the Bronze Age, one covering the Early Iron Age (or pre-Classical antiquity), and Part I of our Classical Antiquity timeline.

Note: the changeover from BC to AD dates takes place early in the period labeled “The Julio-Claudian and Flavian Dynasties.” Four dates—the last year of the reign of Augustus, the (approximate) deaths of Hillel the Elder and Shammai, and the date of the formation of the Zealots—are explicitly marked as AD, because they are immediately adjacent to BC dates; thenceforward, unmarked dates are AD.

The Collapse of the Roman Republic

44 BC—Julius Cæsar assassinated by M. Junius Brutus, Cassius Longinus, and others (“the Liberators”).
43-42 BC—Liberators’ Civil War, waged by Second Triumvirate (Lepidus, Mark Antony, Octavian) against Liberators to avenge Cæsar: Triumvirate victory.
37 BC—Herod the Great takes throne of Judea, with Roman backing.
34 BC—Donations of Alexandria: Cleopatra, Antony declare various Near Eastern realms (including Roman territory) domains of theirs, their children; Second Triumvirate collapses.
31 BC—Battle of Actium, between Rome under Octavian and Cleopatra with Antony: Roman victory. Octavian effectively becomes emperor.

Classical Rome

This period is also referred to as “the Principate,” referring to the official legal title held by the emperors at the time, Prīnceps Senātūs (roughly, “Speaker of the Senate”).

The Julio-Claudian and Flavian Dynasties

These (along with the interruption of the Year of the Four Emperors) are the first two dynasties that reigned over the Roman Empire. Both a broad outline of the Julio-Claudians and a brief sketch of the founder of the Nazarenes can be found in this post; the transitions to the Flavian dynasty and the Christian Church are here.

31 BC-14 AD—Reign of Octavian (titled “Augustus”).
ca. 30 BC-ca. 10 AD—Career of Hillel the Elder, prominent Pharisee theologian and founder of Beyt Hillel (interpretive school emphasizing kindness, leniency in applying Torah).
19 BC—Death of Virgil; publication of Æneid (unfinished).
ca. 10 BC-ca. 30 AD—Career of Shammai, prominent Pharisee theologian and founder of Beyt Shammai (rival to Beyt Hillel, applying Torah rigorously)
ca. 4-1 BC—Birth of Jesus of Nazareth? Death of Herod the Great; his realm is divided; most going to his favored son, Archelaus.
6 AD—Archelaus deposed by Rome for misrule; Roman province of Judea formed. Foundation of Zealots, fourth Judaic sect (alongside Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes).
ca. 25-30?—Career of St. John the Baptist, prophet (possible Essene or sympathizer).
26-31—Height of power of Sejanus, prefect of Prætorian Guard and favorite of Emperor Tiberius; in 31 (possibly for conspiracy), Sejanus abruptly falls from power, is executed. Last years of Tiberius characterized by arbitrary rule, violence, paranoia.
ca. 28?-33?—Career of Jesus of Nazareth, rabbi and messianic claimant; after approx. three years, Jesus executed by Roman governor, Pilate.¹ Closest followers (known as Apostles) claim to have seen Jesus alive after execution; beginning of fifth Judaic sect, Nazarenes, which develops into primitive² Christianity.
ca. 33-35?—Conversion of St. Paul of Tarsus (former extreme opponent) to Christianity.
37-41—Reign of Gaius Caligula, adoptive son of Tiberius. Caligula rapidly proves tyrannical: executes many senators or forces them to commit suicide, reputedly plans to install own statue in Temple at Jerusalem. Assassinated early in 41.
43-47—Roman conquest of southern Britain under Emperor Claudius.
ca. 47-ca. 65—Career of St. Paul as Christian missionary; Christianity established in cities throughout Mediterranean. Much of New Testament written around this time.
ca. 49—Council of Jerusalem; Christian leaders determine Gentile converts need not observe ritual duties of Torah (esp. circumcision, sabbath, kashrut), initiating separation from Judaism.
54-68—Reign of Nero (last Julio-Claudian emperor). Makes some positive reforms, but reputed as vain, corrupt; known matricide (in 59); ultimately dies by suicide.
64—Great Fire of Rome; to quell rumors blaming him, Nero scapegoats, illegalizes Christianity; intermittent, mostly-local persecutions of Christianity recur for nearly 300 years.
66-73—First Jewish War: Roman victory. Extinction of Sadducees, Essenes; possible date for expulsion of Nazarenes from mainstream Judaism.
69—Year of Four Emperors: Vespasian emerges as permanent emperor.
69-79—Reign of Vespasian, founder of Flavian dynasty: order restored, financial reforms instituted, Roman rule in Britain expands.
70—Jerusalem besieged, sacked by Titus (elder son of Emperor Vespasian): Temple destroyed, vessels taken to Rome as spoils.
ca. 75-95—Career of Josephus, former leader in Jewish rebellion who surrendered to Romans; he publishes history of war (The Jewish War) and history, ethnography of Jews, Judaism (The Antiquities of the Jews).
79—Vesuvius erupts, ruins Pompeii, other towns. Emperor Titus extends relief to survivors.
81-96—Reign of Domitian (last Flavian emperor). Authoritarianism, cult of personality (e.g. first emperor to use title dominus, “lord” or “master”) make him popular with people but hated by Senate; ultimately assassinated.
ca. 90-100?—Possible date of Revelation, completing New Testament; death of St. John, last living Apostle; Christianity enters patristic period.

The Antonine and Severan Dynasties

This post is a broad sketch of the second and third centuries.

98-117—Reign of Trajan: Roman Empire reaches maximum territorial extent.
ca. 98-ca. 120—Career of Tacitus.
ca. 100-300—Flourishing of Gnostic sects, influenced by Christian, Greek, Persian ideas.
112—Trajan (informally) relaxes imperial anti-Christian policy.
113-197—Main phase of Roman-Parthian Wars, fought for Mesopotamia and Armenia.
122—Building of Hadrian’s Wall, defining border between Roman province of Britannia and region of Caledonia (roughly equivalent to modern Scotland).
132-136—Second Jewish War, a.k.a. Bar Kochba Revolt: Roman victory. Jews banned from Jerusalem; extinction of Zealots, last Judaic rival to Pharisees; Pharisaism develops into all subsequent rabbinic Judaism.
ca. 144—Marcion (prominent Gnostic, anti-Semitic theologian) excommunicated by Church in Rome; founds Marcionist Church, which persists a few centuries.
161-180—Reign of Marcus Aurelius. Writes Meditations while on campaign; some increase in anti-Christian persecutions during his reign.
165-180—Antonine Plague (unidentified, possibly smallpox); mass death throughout empire.
ca. 175?-ca. 220?—Career of Tertullian.
180-192—Reign of Commodus (last Antonine emperor). Assassinated without clear heir.
193—Year of Five Emperors: Septimius Severus (founder of Severan dynasty) emerges as permanent emperor.
193-211—Reign of Septimius Severus.
ca. 203-253—Career of Origen, eminent Christian theologian and Biblical scholar.
212—Constitutio Antoniniana (“Antonine Regulation”) extends Roman citizenship to all free men in empire.
218-222—Reign of Elagabalus; assassinated, along with his mother.
222-235—Reign of Alexander Severus (last Severan emperor).
224—Collapse of Parthia; foundation of Sassanid Persian Empire.

Late Antiquity

This designation merits some criticism, a topic we shall return to when we begin discussing the Medieval period.

The Crisis of the Third Century

235-284—Mainly non-dynastic series of “barracks emperors,” mostly insignificant.
249-262—Plague of Cyprian devastates Roman Empire.
250—Decian persecution, first empire-wide persecution of Christians. Mainly in Rome and province of Africa, apostasies lead to schisms between between Christian mainstream, rigorist parties (Donatists in Africa, Novatianists in Rome): mainstream believes Church can pardon apostasy like other sins; rigorists do not, opposing readmission of apostates, especially reinstatement of apostate clergy.
257-260—Valerianic persecution, similar in severity to Decian but longer-lasting.
260—Emperor Valerian captured by Shah Shapur I of Sassanid Persia; dies in captivity.
260-274—Breakaway Gallic Empire (rules Britannia, Gaul, temporarily Spain).
ca. 269—Battle of Naissus, between Roman Empire and Gothic coalition: Roman victory.
270-273—Breakaway Palmyrene Empire (rules southeast Anatolia, Egypt, Levant, Syria).
270-275—Reign of Aurelian, who reunifies Gallic and Palmyrene Empires with Roman.
280-ca. 400?—Presence of Manichæism in Roman Empire.
284—Diocletian takes throne, fully restores order.

Diocletian and the Constantinian Dynasty

This part of the history of the Roman Empire is also referred to as “the Dominate,” since dominus now became one of the official titles of the emperor; henceforward, the pretense of republican government is dropped. These last two segments of the timeline—a period of little under two hundred years—are reviewed in this post.

284-305—Reign of Diocletian. Reorganizes empire substantially, including refashioning imperial office itself, establishing new capitals, erecting “Tetrarchy”³ (division of empire under multiple co-reigning emperors). Is first Roman emperor to abdicate.
301—Kingdom of Armenia becomes first state to officially adopt Christianity.
302-311—Diocletian persecution, last and most severe of Roman persecutions.
312—Battle of Milvian Bridge, between party of Constantine I and party of regnant Emperror Maxentius: Constantinian victory.
312-337—Reign of Constantine I.⁴
313—Edict of Milan legalizes Christianity.
ca. 320-350?—Aksumite Kingdom of Ethiopia officially adopts Christianity.
325-373—Career of St. Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria.
325—First Council of Nicæa (first of Seven Great Councils) condemns Arianism. Rulers from Constantinian dynasty remain sympathetic to Semi-Arianism; ongoing tension in Church.
ca. 330-380?—Career of Ulfilas, who spreads Arian Christianity among Goths, outside empire.
335-364—St. Athanasius endures five exiles, due to emperors’ Semi-Arian sympathies.
361-363—Reign of Julian the Apostate, last pagan ruler of Rome (last member of Constantinian dynasty).

The Valentinian-Theodosian⁵ Dynasty

ca. 365?-420—Career of St. Jerome, translator of Vulgate.
ca. 370-ca. 470—Thriving period of Hunnic Empire, roughly in modern Hungary, Romania.
372-ca. 394—Career of St. Gregory of Nyssa.
374-397—Career of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, later mentor of St. Augustine.
379-395—Reign of Theodosius I. At his death, Empire permanently split into East, West halves (capitals in New Rome,⁶ Milan), ruled by his sons Arcadius, Honorius.
381—First Council of Constantinople (second Great Council) reaffirms Nicæa I.
388-430—Career of St. Augustine.
406-439—Germanic groups (including Alans, Ostrogoths, Suebi, Vandals, Visigoths) cross border into West Roman Empire; set up quasi-autonomous realms in Africa, Gaul, Spain.
407—Roman withdrawal from Britannia.
410—City of Rome sacked by Visigoths.
ca. 410?-ca. 500—Migration of Anglo-Saxons to Britain.
428-431—Nestorius, bishop of New Rome, attracts controversy for opposing Marian title Theotokos (“Mother of God”); general controversy over nature of Christ begins: Nestorians at one extreme, Monophysites at other.⁷
431—Council of Ephesus (third Great Council) condemns Nestorianism; Church in Persia rejects Ephesus, receives exiled Nestorius (origin of Church of the East).
ca. 432-ca. 460?—Mission of St. Patrick to Ireland.
434-453—Reign of Attila the Hun (apex of Hunnish power).
451—Council of Chalcedon (fourth Great Council) condemns Monophysites; much of Egyptian, Syrian populace reject Council of Chalcedon (origin of Oriental Orthodoxy).
455—City of Rome sacked by Vandals.
476—Romulus Augustus, last West Roman Emperor, deposed by Ostrogothic king Odovacer.

We can only understand the present by continually referring to and studying the past; when any one of the intricate phenomena of our daily life puzzles us ... we must always remember that while their solution lies in the present, their cause and their explanation lie in the past.

W. E. B. Du Bois, "The Beginnings of Slavery"

¹Though this is not certain, some historians theorize Pontius Pilate may have been nominated to govern Judea by Sejanus. If so, then Pilate’s unwillingness to “rock the boat” (even to the extent of executing an innocent man) after being threatened with the report of being “not Cæsar’s friend,” as depicted in the Gospel of John, makes a great deal of sense. Sejanus’s fall seems to have been one or two years removed from the date of the Crucifixion, at most, which would have made all imperial officials (let alone friends or clients of Sejanus) even warier of the emperor’s displeasure than usual.
²The word “primitive” is sometimes misunderstood: in this context, it means “original” or “earliest,” not “rudimentary” or “immature.”
³The Tetrarchy as designed by Diocletian did not survive long past his own reign; however, its most basic aspect—the division of the empire into western and eastern halves, along a line drawn roughly through Tripoli and Sarajevo—was maintained, or restored, under the sons of Theodosius I, who succeeded to the two half-thrones just before the turn of the fifth century.
⁴Constantine I’s reign is often dated as beginning in 306, not 312. This could be argued to be true in the province of Britannia, where he was acclaimed as emperor by his legions, shortly after Diocletian abdicated; however, Constantine did not wield sole power over the empire as a whole (or even over the western half) until after Milvian Bridge.
⁵This dynasty was a fusion, through marriage, of the Valentinian and Theodosian families (not unlike the Julio-Claudian dynasty the empire began with). The Valentinian-Theodosian dynasty went extinct in 457; however, their successors, the Leonids, are more conveniently classed with Justinian.
⁶A.k.a. Constantinople or Byzantium (especially before 1453), or Istanbul (since 1453 only).
⁷The Nestorian position treated Christ’s deity and humanity as so distinct that (at least in the eyes of their opponents) they really made him two people, with nothing more than a union of purpose; the positions labeled Monophysite (again by opponents), of which there were several, so fused Christ’s deity and humanity as to make him less than fully human. Oriental Orthodoxy—which principally means the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt, and the Ethiopian Tewahedo Orthodox Church—rejects the Council of Chalcedon, but denies that its doctrine is Monophysite.

Gabriel Blanchard is CLT’s editor at large. He lives in Baltimore, MD.

If you enjoyed this piece, you might also like our series on the great ideas. Check out our introductions to concepts like aristocracy, change, duty, knowledge, life and death, medicine, and time—plus many more you can find in this handy index. Thanks for reading the Journal!

Published on 25th October, 2024. Page image of a depiction of a Christian agapē feast in the Roman catacombs. Author thumbnail of the “Chrismon of St. Ambrose” (found on the eastern wall of the Cathedral of the Nativity of St. Mary in Milan), a combination of the Chi-Rho monogram (☧) with an equal-armed or “Greek” cross (+) with the Greek letters alpha (Α) and omega (ω) suspended from its crossbar, all enclosed in a circle; St. Ambrose of Milan (ca. 339-397) reputedly used this symbol’s encoded meanings to introduce catechumens to the Christian faith. Photo by G. Dallorto, used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license (source).

Texts in Context:Timeline of Classical Antiquity—Part II